Income Inequality, Sanitation, Internet Access, and Human Development: The Mediating Role of Poverty in Indonesia
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study examines the direct and indirect effects of income inequality, access to adequate sanitation, and household internet access on human development through poverty across Indonesian provinces. Using a balanced panel of 33 provinces from 2010 to 2025, the study applies panel data regression and bootstrap mediation analysis. The poverty model is estimated using a Random Effects Model with time effects and an AR(1) residual structure, while the Human Development Index (HDI) model uses a Fixed Effects Model with province and time effects and an AR(1) residual structure. The results show that the Gini Ratio significantly increases poverty, whereas access to adequate sanitation significantly reduces poverty. Household internet access has no significant effect on poverty. The Gini Ratio, sanitation, internet access, and poverty do not significantly affect HDI. Bootstrap results further show that poverty does not mediate the effects of the three structural variables on HDI. These findings indicate that inequality reduction and sanitation improvement are more directly relevant to poverty alleviation, while improvements in human development require interventions that directly strengthen health, education, and living standards.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
[1] Badan Pusat Statistik, Indeks Pembangunan Manusia 2025. Jakarta, Indonesia: Badan Pusat Statistik, 2026.
[2] A. Sen, Development as Freedom. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1999.
[3] S. Alkire, “Why the capability approach?,” Journal of Human Development, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 115–135, 2005, doi: 10.1080/146498805200034275.
[4] H. A. Albajili and M. A. Samsuddin, “Pengaruh Gini Ratio dan APBD per kapita terhadap Indeks Pembangunan Manusia di Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur,” JUKONI: Jurnal Ilmu Ekonomi dan Bisnis, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 47–53, 2025.
[5] D. F. Sahara, M. Mukhsin, and E. Pardiansyah, “Pengaruh kinerja zakat, Gini Rasio dan angkatan kerja terhadap kemiskinan dengan Indeks Pembangunan Manusia sebagai variabel mediasi,” Jurnal Masharif Al-Syariah: Jurnal Ekonomi dan Perbankan Syariah, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 3388–3414, 2025, doi: 10.30651/jms.v10i5.28377.
[6] R. Umamah and F. Syafitri, “Analisis pengaruh pengangguran, Gini rasio, dan jumlah penduduk terhadap Indeks Pembangunan Manusia di Provinsi Lampung,” Journal of Development Economic and Digitalization, vol. 4, no. 1, 2025, doi: 10.59664/jded.v4i1.10560.
[7] R. Ramadhan, “Pengaruh tingkat ketimpangan (Gini Ratio) terhadap Indeks Pembangunan Manusia di Provinsi Jawa Barat pada tahun 2022,” Jurnal Bisnis dan Manajemen West Science, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 108–118, 2024, doi: 10.58812/jbmws.v3i01.1020.
[8] P. A. C. Libanio, “WASH services and human development: A tangible nexus for achieving water-related SDGs,” International Journal of River Basin Management, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 57–66, 2022, doi: 10.1080/15715124.2021.1909603.
[9] H. Amorocho-Daza, P. van der Zaag, and J. Sušnik, “Access to water-related services strongly modulates human development,” Earth’s Future, vol. 11, no. 4, Art. no. e2022EF003364, 2023, doi: 10.1029/2022EF003364.
[10] V. H. L. Hariani and Ekaria, “Pengaruh pengangguran, sanitasi, TIK terhadap IPM dan melalui kemiskinan kabupaten/kota di Kawasan Timur Indonesia 2021,” Seminar Nasional Official Statistics, vol. 2023, no. 1, pp. 601–610, 2023, doi: 10.34123/semnasoffstat.v2023i1.1736.
[11] S. Khaerunnisa and T. K. Purnamaningrum, “Pengaruh sanitasi layak, air minum layak, dan pendidikan terhadap Indeks Pembangunan Manusia di Pulau Jawa tahun 2017–2024,” Cakrawala Repository IMWI, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 869–879, 2025, doi: 10.52851/cakrawala.v8i6.828.
[12] A. O. Acheampong, E. E. O. Opoku, J. Dzator, and N. K. Kufuor, “Enhancing human development in developing regions: Do ICT and transport infrastructure matter?,” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, vol. 180, Art. no. 121725, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121725.
13] P. Bala, “The impact of mobile broadband and internet bandwidth on human development—A comparative analysis of developing and developed countries,” Journal of the Knowledge Economy, vol. 15, pp. 16419–16453, 2024, doi: 10.1007/s13132-023-01711-0.
[14] M. D. Saputra and Budyanra, “Variabel-variabel yang memengaruhi kualitas pembangunan manusia kabupaten/kota di Provinsi Maluku Utara tahun 2015–2022,” Seminar Nasional Official Statistics, vol. 2024, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2024, doi: 10.34123/semnasoffstat.v2024i1.2011.
[15] A. U. Syukri and Megawaty, “Dampak dunia digital terhadap kesejahteraan masyarakat di Indonesia,” Movere Journal, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 305–319, 2025, doi: 10.53654/mv.v7i2.626.
[16] A. K. Fosu, “Inequality, income, and poverty: Comparative global evidence,” Social Science Quarterly, vol. 91, no. 5, pp. 1432–1446, 2010, doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6237.2010.00739.x.
[17] S. Suparman, “Relationship between economic growth, income inequality and poverty by provinces in Indonesia: Panel data regression approach,” International Journal of Environmental, Sustainability, and Social Science, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 103–108, 2022, doi: 10.38142/ijesss.v3i1.167.
[18] G. Pramono and W. Marsisno, “Availability of infrastructure for poverty reduction in Indonesia: Spatial panel data analysis,” Economics and Finance in Indonesia, vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 157–180, 2018, doi: 10.47291/efi.v64i2.587.
[19] F. Andrianus and K. Alfatih, “Pengaruh infrastruktur terhadap kemiskinan dengan menggunakan data panel 34 provinsi di Indonesia,” Jurnal Informatika Ekonomi Bisnis, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 56–62, 2023, doi: 10.37034/infeb.v5i1.206.
[20] W. W. Rahman, A. Wahab, L. Rukmani, and Y. Karmila, “The influence of poverty, unemployment and government expenditures on the Human Development Index,” Imara: Jurnal Riset Ekonomi Islam, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 39–47, 2024, doi: 10.31958/imara.v8i1.12226.
[21] A. R. Nasution, A. Handayani, R. Rinaldi, T. Angelia, T. E. G. Siahaan, and F. B. Hutabarat, “The effect of poverty level on Human Development Index in North Sumatera Province in 2018,” International Journal of Education, Social Studies, and Management, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 435–442, 2024, doi: 10.52121/ijessm.v4i2.273.
[22] S. Rahmawati, M. Kuncoro, Y. Sading, M. Lutfi, A. H. Jaya, and M. Fahlevi, “The impact of poverty, malnutrition, and household income on human development in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia: A panel data analysis,” Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, vol. 8, no. 13, Art. no. 7854, 2024, doi: 10.24294/jipd7854.
[23] A. I. Romadhani and A. Anwar, “Analysis of economic and social factors affecting the Human Development Index in Central Java,” Jurnal Kebijakan Ekonomi dan Keuangan, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 68–77, 2025, doi: 10.20885/JKEK.vol4.iss1.art8.
[24] M. R. Rank, H.-S. Yoon, and T. A. Hirschl, “American poverty as a structural failing: Evidence and arguments,” The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 3–29, 2003.
[25] T. K. Bradshaw, “Theories of poverty and anti-poverty programs in community development,” Community Development, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 7–25, 2007, doi: 10.1080/15575330709490182.
[26] R. M. Blank, “Poverty, policy, and place: How poverty and policies to alleviate poverty are shaped by local characteristics,” International Regional Science Review, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 441–464, 2005, doi: 10.1177/0160017605278999.
[27] R. Chambers, Rural Development: Putting the Last First. London, U.K.: Longman, 1983.
[28] N. F. Ruhyana and W. Y. Essa, “Opportunities of using information and communication technology in reducing poverty,” JEJAK: Jurnal Ekonomi dan Kebijakan, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 317–329, 2020, doi: 10.15294/jejak.v13i2.25036.
[29] A. Hidayat, F. Prasetya, and F. W. Pangestuty, “Role of internet accessibility in reducing the poverty rates in Java: A spatial approach,” Journal of Indonesian Applied Economics, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 21–31, 2021, doi: 10.21776/ub.jiae.2021.009.01.3.
[30] A. Aziz, D. Susetyo, and M. Subardin, “Pengaruh jumlah penduduk, akses listrik, akses internet dan akses sanitasi layak terhadap tingkat kemiskinan di Provinsi Sumatera Bagian Selatan,” COSTING: Journal of Economic, Business and Accounting, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 1529–1541, 2025, doi: 10.31539/2abe9z15.
[31] J. W. Creswell and J. D. Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 5th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: SAGE Publications, 2018.